tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-22600957276564199322024-03-16T18:52:47.669+00:00World of Biochemistry (blog about biochemistry)This blog intends to display concepts, informations, musics, videos, games, cartoons, curiosities about biochemical issues. Because Biochemistry does not have to be incomprehensible...World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.comBlogger571125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-58397178800858760112017-04-10T10:14:00.002+01:002017-04-10T10:14:56.243+01:00Oxidative Stress and aging<div style="text-align: justify;">
Oxidative stress is the major pillar of the theory of aging. As a joke, I often say in my classes that we get old because we have the bad habit of spending our whole life breathing oxygen. Basically it is the oxygen that makes us live, but it is also the one that kills us little by little, that is, that makes us grow old...<br />And what is the relationship between oxygen and aging? The answer boils down to two words: oxidative stress! Sporadically, there are O2 molecules that transform into reactive oxygen species, most of which are neutralized by our antioxidant defenses (<a href="http://worldofbiochemistry.blogspot.pt/2017/02/oxidative-stress-antioxidants.html" target="_blank">more information on this subject here</a>). However, there are always some reactive oxygen species that can bypass our defenses and consequently can cause minor damage to some of our biomolecules. Although these damages do not have much biological significance, when evaluated isolated, as we grow older, they accumulate, and these cumulative damages begin to translate to the loss of some functionalities. Examples are loss of skin malleability, joint stiffness, loss of sensory ability, etc.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgw0gi7ubBixbKKkxYZdjTrZqbVmcUyq8tlLoNamXUOoLE_m4wfPm17UHwv-XubSkm6zofPKS6vciiw_Dov78gny0q-GuGWOYqRs407OGpigm4P_iR2hmFzILarEqdQgK04bnHEryCO2WBo/s1600/Envelhecimento.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="526" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgw0gi7ubBixbKKkxYZdjTrZqbVmcUyq8tlLoNamXUOoLE_m4wfPm17UHwv-XubSkm6zofPKS6vciiw_Dov78gny0q-GuGWOYqRs407OGpigm4P_iR2hmFzILarEqdQgK04bnHEryCO2WBo/s640/Envelhecimento.jpg" width="640" /></a><br />Therefore, everything that can accelerate our metabolic rate has the potential to make us age faster because it increases the production of reactive oxygen species. In this context, the effect of emotional stress is particularly evident! For example, people who have jobs and activities of high stress, age at a much higher rate than those who have a much more relaxed life.<br />Finally, I would like to make it clear that oxidative stress is not the only factor responsible for aging, but it is certainly one of the main ones, so if we want to age more slowly, we have to ensure an adequate balance between the pro-oxidants and the anti-oxidants!</div>
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World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com32tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-9459523583138677222017-04-04T07:46:00.004+01:002017-04-04T07:46:48.269+01:00Metabolic map about LDL and atherosclerosis<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGw1bdnuewCrSmQqlBxdgQdKOSgGBBw7JZ422nF_pZJlFeQmWxIP7r4TVzHHDm5jEK_AG3hImHbRnFH2wg-N2Pu_B8pwgkub7JjRynHvtFgAbzQrlwaCg_dfC97zRXIi0qmuSh0BcHETEE/s1600/LDL+e+aterog%25C3%25A9nese.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGw1bdnuewCrSmQqlBxdgQdKOSgGBBw7JZ422nF_pZJlFeQmWxIP7r4TVzHHDm5jEK_AG3hImHbRnFH2wg-N2Pu_B8pwgkub7JjRynHvtFgAbzQrlwaCg_dfC97zRXIi0qmuSh0BcHETEE/s640/LDL+e+aterog%25C3%25A9nese.gif" width="610" /></a></div>
<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-57523978066915492062017-03-17T11:47:00.003+00:002017-03-17T11:47:37.022+00:00Myoglobin<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7wb8851P1flhhOVl7Bb73F66wKz_Irje0pTKKx7pvudfJpNpeagVaSw-OALw0i4ir0jP07R0ViGenwxVYml12ECGlJe1dj5DviGvNcvMbfw26L5RY2kxG9dz5T4hDaeFXlPryHFPgKZWB/s1600/Mioglobina.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="153" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7wb8851P1flhhOVl7Bb73F66wKz_Irje0pTKKx7pvudfJpNpeagVaSw-OALw0i4ir0jP07R0ViGenwxVYml12ECGlJe1dj5DviGvNcvMbfw26L5RY2kxG9dz5T4hDaeFXlPryHFPgKZWB/s320/Mioglobina.jpg" width="320" /></a><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="A mioglobina é uma hemoproteína citoplasmática que consiste numa única cadeia polipeptídica de 154 aminoácidos.">Myoglobin is a cytoplasmic hemoprotein composed by a single polypeptide chain of 154 amino acids. </span><span title="Expressa unicamente em miócitos cardíacos e fibras musculares esqueléticas oxidativas, a mioglobina foi assim chamada por causa da sua semelhança funcional e estrutural à hemoglobina.">It is expressed
solely in cardiac myocytes and oxidative skeletal muscle fibers. Myoglobin was so named because of its functional and structural
similarity to hemoglobin. </span><span title="Como a hemoglobina, a mioglobina liga-se reversivelmente ao O2 e, assim, pode facilitar o transporte de O2 a partir de glóbulos vermelhos para as mitocôndrias durante períodos de aumento da atividade metabólica ou servir como um reservatório de O2 durante hipoxia ou anoxia.
">Like hemoglobin, myoglobin binds reversibly to O2 and thus may
facilitate the transport of O2 from red blood cells to the mitochondria
during periods of increased metabolic activity or serve as an O 2
reservoir during hypoxia or anoxia.</span><span title="A estrutura da mioglobina foi delineada pela primeira vez por John Kendrew há mais de 40 anos atrás e trabalhos subsequentes demonstraram que é uma cadeia de polipéptidos que consiste em oito α-hélices (Fig. 3A).">The
structure of myoglobin was first delineated by John Kendrew more than
40 years ago and subsequent work has shown that it is a polypeptide
chain consisting of eight α-helices. </span><span title="Liga-se ao oxigénio pelo seu resíduo heme, um anel de porfirina: complexo do ião de ferro.">It binds oxygen to its heme residue, a porphyrin ring with an iron ion. </span><span title="A cadeia polipeptídica é dobrada e embala o grupo prostético heme, posicionando-o entre dois resíduos de histidina, His64 e His93.">The
polypeptide chain is folded and packs the heme prosthetic group,
positioning it between two histidine, His64 and His93 residues. </span><span title="O ião de ferro interage com seis ligantes, quatro dos quais são fornecidos pelos átomos de nitrogénio dos quatro pirrroles e compartilham um plano comum (Fig. 3B).">The
iron ion interacts with six ligands, four of which are supplied by the
nitrogen atoms of the four pyrrhols and share a common plane. </span><span title="A cadeia lateral, imidazol da His93, fornece o quinto ligando, estabilizando o grupo heme e deslocando ligeiramente o ião de ferro para fora do plano do heme.">The
side chain imidazole of His93, provides the fifth ligand, stabilizing
the heme group and slightly displacing the iron ion out of the heme
plane. </span><span title="A posição do sexto ligando, sem desoximioglobina, serve como local de ligação para o O2, bem como para outros ligandos potenciais, tais como o CO ou NO.">The
position of the sixth ligand, in deoximoglobin, serves as the
binding site for O2, as well as for other potential ligands, such as CO
or NO. </span><span title="Quando o O2 se liga, o ião ferro está parcialmente puxado para trás em direção ao plano da porfirina.">When O2 binds, the iron ion, it is partially drawn back toward the porphyrin plane. </span><span title="Embora este deslocamento seja de pouca importância na função da mioglobina monomérica, fornece a base para as mudanças conformacionais que fundamentam as propriedades alostéricas da hemoglobina tetramérica.">Although
this shift is of little importance in the function of monomeric
myoglobin, it provides the basis for the conformational changes that
underlie the allosteric properties of tetrameric hemoglobin. </span><span title="Além disso, estudos que utilizam a difração de raios-X e técnicas de ligação de xénon identificaram quatro cavidades internas altamente conservadas dentro da molécula de mioglobina que pode servir para concentrar e orientar moléculas para a ligação ao resíduo heme.
">In addition, studies using X-ray diffraction and xenon binding
techniques have identified four highly conserved internal cavities
within the myoglobin molecule that can help target molecules to bind to the heme residue.</span><span title="Relacionada com o seu papel como um reservatório de O2, a mioglobina funciona também como um tampão de PO2 intracelular (pressão parcial de O2).">Related to its role as an O2 reservoir, myoglobin also functions as an intracellular pO2 buffer (partial pressure of O2). </span><span title="Semelhante ao papel da creatinafosfoquinase, que funciona para tamponar concentrações de ATP quando atividade muscular aumenta, a mioglobina funciona para tamponar concentrações de O2.">Similarly
to the role of creatine phosphokinase, which works to buffer ATP
concentrations when muscle activity increases, myoglobin works to buffer
O2 concentrations. </span><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física.">As
a result, the intracellular concentration of O2 remains relatively
constant and homogeneous, despite increases in O2 flow from the
capillaries to the mitochondria, induced by physical activity.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física."><u>Text written by:</u></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física."><i><b>Ana Rita Cardoso</b></i></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física."><i><b>João Faria</b></i></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física."><i><b>Joel Mateus</b></i></span></span></div>
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física."><i><b>Pedro Desport </b></i></span></span><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Como resultado, a concentração intracelular de O2 mantem-se relativamente constante e homogénea, apesar de aumentos no fluxo de O2 dos capilares para as mitocôndrias, induzidos pela atividade física.">.</span></span>World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-5557007196263357942017-03-13T12:54:00.004+00:002017-03-13T12:54:49.955+00:00Cartoon about Cell-fies<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5fTDKW5Nu16yWm8T34uyUNKFy-kvFITNrMyGJldG3wQf1SzFIrYv7S1O7gGx4imQ0-r89SjhLGo-JO01P500MmhD5gMceLfnPEUouv2urOkRX21ETvODlXL5kv6MfjQTcAg8f07bD_eyw/s1600/Cellfie.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5fTDKW5Nu16yWm8T34uyUNKFy-kvFITNrMyGJldG3wQf1SzFIrYv7S1O7gGx4imQ0-r89SjhLGo-JO01P500MmhD5gMceLfnPEUouv2urOkRX21ETvODlXL5kv6MfjQTcAg8f07bD_eyw/s640/Cellfie.jpg" width="568" /></a></div>
<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-37128728993946465392017-03-10T11:21:00.001+00:002017-03-10T11:21:33.886+00:00Oxidative stress and cellular respiration<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">During cellular
respiration, electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH2, along 4 protein
complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, to an O<sub>2</sub> molecule
(<a href="http://worldofbiochemistry.blogspot.pt/2013/04/cellular-respiration-overview.html" target="_blank">read more about this subject here</a>). In the last stage of the
process, the electrons are transported one by one, that is, they will reach the
oxygen one at a time. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5Qklx8dzcoVlTjc0_2V6oZYMFxHrdsa4ckrP9sXUVYvq-MdeFY_56SM74iS1kYWirxavhfi9kkZrmA3HrCSIHduTgc9WlKGxLr5gDOo7XyyLn_Vx9S6HkQS95MIib5c-Wp26uvvpalcBk/s1600/Cadeia+respirat%25C3%25B3ria.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="440" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5Qklx8dzcoVlTjc0_2V6oZYMFxHrdsa4ckrP9sXUVYvq-MdeFY_56SM74iS1kYWirxavhfi9kkZrmA3HrCSIHduTgc9WlKGxLr5gDOo7XyyLn_Vx9S6HkQS95MIib5c-Wp26uvvpalcBk/s640/Cadeia+respirat%25C3%25B3ria.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">This situation, which may seem only a detail to many,
has, in fact, very important implications for our biochemistry, because it
means that all O<sub>2</sub> molecules are, even temporarily, transformed into
a free radical, the superoxide anion. This means that, literally, at every
instant we are producing large quantities of reactive oxygen species. However,
this situation, which is potentially very dangerous, does not have, under
normal conditions, dramatic consequences for cells, mainly for 2 reasons:<br />
1. There are mechanisms that prevent the superoxide anion from diffusing from
complex 4 before it is completely reduced to water. That is, the free radical
is formed, but remains in place and quickly receives another electron, ceasing
to be free radical.<br />
2. As there are always some superoxide anions that can escape the first
mechanism, we have other defense mechanisms, and in this context, the most
important is the presence of a mitochondrial enzyme called superoxide
dismutase. This enzyme, which also has a cytosolic isoform, will cause
dismutation of the superoxide anion, converting two of these molecules into
hydrogen peroxide.<br />
Of course there will also be superoxide anions that will be able to escape from
superoxide dismutase, but under normal conditions these are very few. In
addition, we still have several other antioxidant defenses waiting for them...</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">. </span></div>
World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-83719717380545993082017-03-02T06:38:00.002+00:002017-03-02T06:38:34.496+00:00Metabolic map about the surface proteins of cytotoxic T cells<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-68938328473947144062017-02-28T06:22:00.000+00:002017-02-28T06:22:08.506+00:00Insulin<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5IPvwJPgMLxEtpxHQkhvIl1AcYaGoPnWV7oayJMUefPpaEDCN-meqSLaoAueHTBmYnCp0_gfyEvGJdnrPyoPJMzElzg-xx8G20_JKPllxIy7JzarzqLvqsXwfjb3NmILZW8qBRSbqfkvN/s1600/Insulina.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5IPvwJPgMLxEtpxHQkhvIl1AcYaGoPnWV7oayJMUefPpaEDCN-meqSLaoAueHTBmYnCp0_gfyEvGJdnrPyoPJMzElzg-xx8G20_JKPllxIy7JzarzqLvqsXwfjb3NmILZW8qBRSbqfkvN/s320/Insulina.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone produced, stored and secreted in Beta cells of the islets of Langerhans, in the pancreas (in a histological section it is seen that they occupy the central part). It is an anabolic hormone that acts at the level of the liver, adipose tissue and with influence in the brain.<br />This protein has two polypeptide chains, with 21 amino acids in the A chain and 30 in the B chain, joined by disulfide bonds, which gives a greater stability and a correct folding. It begins to be produced in the form of pre-pro-insulin which, by action of the peptidase is cleaved to form the proinsulin. The proteolytic cleavage of peptide C forms the two chain bioactive insulin, which is stored in secretory granules for subsequent insulin secretion.Its main function is to regulate blood glucose levels in a context of hyperglycemia. In this way, glucose acts as a biochemical signal that triggers its secretion. Thus, when carbohydrate-containing foods are absorbed, glucose is metabolized to ATP and this in turn triggers insulin secretion. Protein-protein interactions and phosphorylations are used to transmit the signal. In adipose tissue and muscle, the binding of insulin to membrane receptors triggers the displacement of GLUT4-rich vesicles that fuse with the membrane, increasing cell uptake, being an insulin-dependent transport.<br />On the other hand, in the liver, insulin activates the enzyme glycokinase, which is responsible for the conversion of glucose into glucose-6-phosphate; Guarantees an intracellular concentration of glucose lower than the extracellular concentration and, therefore, a gradient of glucose concentration favorable to its entry into these cells, through the GLUT-2 transporter, following metabolization by glycolysis, Krebs and the respiratory chain to produce ATP. Thus, after food intake, glucose is absorbed into the intestines and is released into the bloodstream, causing blood concentrations to rise, leading to transient hyperglycemia. The pancreas releases insulin to lower glucose concentration, allowing glucose to be consumed by the cells, as well as stimulating the storage of glucose in the liver in the form of glycogen; The liver also metabolize glucose into triacylglycerols, transported as VLDL to be stored in adipose tissue, which are useful reserves in fasting situations. Signal transmission ceases, at meal time, by dephosphorylation of the insulin receptor by protein tyrosine phosphatase.<br />In summary, insulin stimulates glycogenesis, fatty acid synthesis and glycolysis and inhibits antagonistic pathways: glycogenolysis, fatty acid degradation and hepatic gluconeogenesis. It also stimulates protein synthesis. It has action on inherent enzymes as well as effects on gene transcription. It also acts on specific receptors in the hypothalamus to inhibit the act of eating, thus regulating feeding and energy conservation.<br />Inborn errors of beta cell metabolism can produce excessive or defective production of insulin by gene mutations (GCK), Kir 6.2 alterations, or insulin synthesis transcription factors, respectively. Increased glucose leads to increased osmotic pressure, glycation of proteins and formation of reactive oxygen species (EROS).<br />Diabetes is the metabolic disease characterized by increased blood sugar: It may be Type I - in which the body stops producing insulin by destroying the B cells of the pancreas. It is important to check for symptoms of polydipsia, fruity aroma breathing, blood glucose and blood ketones levels. Essential therapies focus on insulin therapy, fluid replacement, replacement of electrolytes and nourishment. In turn, in Type II diabetes, the cells do not produce enough insulin to lower the concentration of gucose or there is a condition of insulin resistance. Adipocytes, myocytes and hepatocytes do not respond correctly. It presents symptoms similar to type I but more gradual. It is necessary to test for fasting blood glucose and for abnormal levels to continue the investigation for glycemic curve; glycated hemoglobin, control alcohol consumption, etc.<br />They can lead to complications such as diabetic retinopathy, atherosclerosis, diabetic nephropathy, neuropathy, myocardial infarction/stroke, infections - leucocytes less effective in hyperglycemia, hypertension and oxidation of blood vessels. There are currently several drugs on the market that address problems with insulin, as well as different types of injectable insulin depending on the cause of the disease and the purpose of action.</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<u>Text written by:</u></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Denilson Araújo</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Prescília Sampa</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Solange da Costa</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>. </b></i></div>
World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-73897086343738270522017-02-26T06:50:00.004+00:002017-02-26T06:50:35.545+00:00Cartoon sobre milagre científico<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-34705159996841303572017-02-21T13:55:00.000+00:002017-02-21T13:55:00.315+00:00Oxidative stress - Advantages and disadvantages<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">
Oxidative stress results primarily from an imbalance between molecules
potentially dangerous to our cells, the so-called reactive oxygen species, and
molecules that protect the oxidative integrity of our cellular structures, as
discussed in another post (<a href="http://worldofbiochemistry.blogspot.pt/2017/01/oxidative-stress-general-considerations.html" target="_blank">more information here</a>). When this imbalance favors the former, or
disadvantages the latter, we have the condition called oxidative stress.<br />
Oxidative stress is the mainstay of the aging theory, because although we have
several antioxidant defenses to protect us, there are always reactive oxygen
species that can bypass these defenses, causing little damages that start to
accumulate. Furthermore, in the case of smokers, there is permanent oxidative
stress, especially at the level of lung cells, since tobacco smoke contains
large amounts of reactive oxygen species (and reactive nitrogen species, but I
will not talk about them today), which causes the antioxidant defenses in the
lungs to be unable to cope completely with the aggressions from tobacco smoke.<br />
But not everything is bad news, because our biochemistry is full of examples
where even the most dangerous situations/molecules can be converted into an
advantage, at least in some contexts... This is what happens with oxidative
stress! Although it is a potentially fatal situation for cells and therefore,
most often, is a situation we should avoid, there is a context where oxidative
stress is beneficial to our body. I'm talking about the inflammatory response...</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPn6oQGPvRqg69wpfii77bW_eoxtbzxHraqW7VrskWYtrBu1yBPFttmhEUioRM1JzmNicHO07CzJcEitmNKt9DH209Rwr2YSGYigESFLX-OmuI_pu-By1rrWUNT4AfZjabO_RWXtSoc_Wt/s1600/Inflama%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="284" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPn6oQGPvRqg69wpfii77bW_eoxtbzxHraqW7VrskWYtrBu1yBPFttmhEUioRM1JzmNicHO07CzJcEitmNKt9DH209Rwr2YSGYigESFLX-OmuI_pu-By1rrWUNT4AfZjabO_RWXtSoc_Wt/s320/Inflama%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
In a simple way, when there is an invading microorganism (or other types of
stimuli), our organism detects that something is not well, and initiates the
inflammatory response. One of the most important cellular components of it is
neutrophils, a class of white blood cells. One of the ways neutrophils act, is
related to their contact with invading microorganisms. In response to this
situation, neutrophils increase their metabolic rate, and the reason is simple:
they want to overproduce reactive oxygen species, that means, they want to
induce oxidative stress. Of course, this is a controlled process, that is, the
stimulation of oxidative stress occurs at a level that can still be effectively
eliminated by our antioxidant defenses, but most microorganisms will no longer
have this capability. Thus, neutrophils induce oxidative stress, at a level
still tolerated by most of our cells, but not tolerated by most microorganisms.
In this way, the invasion is controlled and ideally does not cause significant
damage to our body.<br />
Therefore, even oxidative stress can be advantageous, as long as properly
controlled. It is another notable example of how fascinating is the World of
Biochemistry ... ;)<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span><br />
World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-37654078153789682902017-02-17T06:18:00.003+00:002017-02-17T06:18:58.222+00:00Metabolic map about propionyl-CoA utilization<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMbPSdmwVo7gQLr_hCl8QM_phSyd-1s9okLL70Pp-SYHsW4qfeT62WBnVe7GtS42kr-IYau0qKt-rGo6vXjZf3vaLc40_n22D6a_9Wu7Be3FMGOUnrobu1RmwpD7MrJmxhmv2rplxqc1tv/s1600/Utiliza%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+de+succinil-CoA.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMbPSdmwVo7gQLr_hCl8QM_phSyd-1s9okLL70Pp-SYHsW4qfeT62WBnVe7GtS42kr-IYau0qKt-rGo6vXjZf3vaLc40_n22D6a_9Wu7Be3FMGOUnrobu1RmwpD7MrJmxhmv2rplxqc1tv/s640/Utiliza%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o+de+succinil-CoA.gif" width="462" /></a></div>
<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-18107980181022503782017-02-14T07:09:00.001+00:002017-02-14T07:11:41.907+00:00Hemoglobin<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLGqdt0MT8FmxFcLR7-Lp8lRzIOfLDSa1ysk37u-31JF8A7guS5aoKsNqmA086NE1qJmOcTds22eDA6BnBQVdGvkI8hZSxq1ntit5vSQ4TBKvWQnYm0_IDDz60xMbFQ2lkXSy8SCsph2oo/s1600/Hemoglobina.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLGqdt0MT8FmxFcLR7-Lp8lRzIOfLDSa1ysk37u-31JF8A7guS5aoKsNqmA086NE1qJmOcTds22eDA6BnBQVdGvkI8hZSxq1ntit5vSQ4TBKvWQnYm0_IDDz60xMbFQ2lkXSy8SCsph2oo/s320/Hemoglobina.jpg" width="320" /></a>For higher animals, simple diffusion mechanisms in body fluids are not an efficient way to meet the oxygenation needs of their tissues and cellular material. To the low area/volume ratio of these living beings, it is added the fact that O2 is a molecule that is essentially insoluble, which makes its transport even more difficult. The solution then passes through carrier proteins, associated with erythrocytes - hemoglobin, to which the following lines refer.Hemoglobin is an oligomeric protein and is generally a metalloprotein consisting of about 600 amino acids, arranged in 2 alpha chains and 2 paired beta chains in a quaternary globular structure. The four chains constitute the organic part of the molecule, and are attached to heme prosthetic groups (consisting of a porphyrin ring and a transition metal: Fe2+) which have affinity for the O2 molecules because of the electron configuration. It is the Fe2+ that assumes this function, always in its ferrous form, and the ferric form - Fe3+ - is not able to bind O2, being at the same time more unstable and prone to the formation of reactive species. Fe2+ has one O2 binding site and this bond as expected would be reversible to allow oxygen to be transported to where it is needed. Due to this binding, there is a change of color in human blood, from bright red when it is in its oxygenated form, to a more purplish tone in its venous phase. Some molecules such as CO2 and NO have a higher affinity for the heme group, "expelling" O2 molecules from erythrocytes, which explains their toxicity to the organism. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Porphyrias are genetic diseases related to porphyrin of the heme group. Examples are acute intermittent porphyria and accumulation of uroporphyrogen I each with specific symptoms.<br />
Concerning the coordinated transport of O2, CO2 and H+, the mechanism is as follows: </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
O2 binds cooperatively to hemoglobin (this means that the bonds promote more bonds) and then the affinity of hemoglobin varies with pH. In an acidic environment, H+ and CO2 cause the release of O2 whereas in a basic medium, O2 causes the release of H+ and CO2. This is the so-called Bohr effect(reciprocal effect): CO2 + H2O <-> HCO3- + H+<br />
The dead erythrocytes release the heme group generating: Fe3+ (which is recycled) and bilirubin (which is excreted in the liver). The latter may have a negative effect if released into the blood because it causes jaundice, or a positive antioxidant effect especially as an antioxidant of the membrane, because it collects two hydroperoxide radicals, having about 1/10 the efficiency of vitamin C.</div>
<br />
<u>Text written by:</u><br />
<i><b>Beatriz Ribeiro</b></i><br />
<i><b>Cláudia Campos</b></i><br />
<i><b>. </b></i>World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-27350341422964828772017-02-10T06:31:00.003+00:002017-02-10T06:31:42.391+00:00Cartoon about meiosis<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkxnDWX9z7Gnru__0tV6sq9XyyYzYT6v1AyuKT6Qn7qY8eCaAgOF7yJQmj8P1rjNmq2xfSzxIVatihEPMWjSY3LNcUcLAGEizK4SeyRLb4W3N5MkClnejf8C3CXbwJt94vVAJT68uYdQep/s1600/Meiose.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkxnDWX9z7Gnru__0tV6sq9XyyYzYT6v1AyuKT6Qn7qY8eCaAgOF7yJQmj8P1rjNmq2xfSzxIVatihEPMWjSY3LNcUcLAGEizK4SeyRLb4W3N5MkClnejf8C3CXbwJt94vVAJT68uYdQep/s640/Meiose.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-22986987718717976172017-02-08T06:19:00.000+00:002017-02-08T06:19:05.527+00:00Oxidative stress - Antioxidants<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirC8Q6uSj5syLbZtoBEc2b13JpBjuHGZJQRKaFor5qp0e9ctbEOBIfnfXNoA0HVaqLo76SMjVlLvwnMh6vr2jhFCGFE7nE6VHlkAM06oQ8lpBsBZ4KwN01uMGeLErEl_CMVoInTIzGeou3/s1600/Antioxidante_2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirC8Q6uSj5syLbZtoBEc2b13JpBjuHGZJQRKaFor5qp0e9ctbEOBIfnfXNoA0HVaqLo76SMjVlLvwnMh6vr2jhFCGFE7nE6VHlkAM06oQ8lpBsBZ4KwN01uMGeLErEl_CMVoInTIzGeou3/s320/Antioxidante_2.jpg" width="320" /></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Recently I have made
a post about oxidative stress (<a href="http://worldofbiochemistry.blogspot.pt/2017/01/oxidative-stress-general-considerations.html" target="_blank">you can read it here</a>), in which,
of course, I gave some prominence to the reactive oxygen species. Well, today
I'm going to talk about the "good ones", that is, the antioxidants...<br />
The word "antioxidant" is probably the word most often heard in
social media ads, whether in the context of food, cosmetics, etc. And, in fact,
we can (and should!) ensure a high exogenous supply of antioxidants, being this
an important issue in different contexts. What possibly fewer people know is
that we already have several internal antioxidants. Therefore, we can already
divide the antioxidants into 2 categories:<br />
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Exogenous antioxidants</b>, which are
those that we obtain mainly from the diet;<br />
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Endogenous antioxidants</b>, which are
those that we produce in our cells and that, under normal conditions, are
always present in them.<br />
Another possible classification is as follows:<br />
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Enzymatic antioxidants</b>, which are
enzymes that we produce and whose function is to eliminate reactive oxygen
species. For example, there is an enzyme, called superoxide dismutase that
catalyzes the conversion of 2 superoxide anions (that are free radicals), to a
hydrogen peroxide molecule (which, although being a reactive oxygen species, is
not a free radical). Another example is catalase (<a href="http://worldofbiochemistry.blogspot.pt/2016/08/catalase.html" target="_blank">you can read more about thisenzyme here</a>), which converts hydrogen peroxide into two products
potentially harmless to our biomolecules, water and oxygen.<br />
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Non-enzymatic antioxidants</b>, which
are molecules that function as antioxidants because they react with reactive
oxygen species, promoting their inactivation. In the background, they are
molecules that "generously" put themselves at the forefront of the
battle against the pro-oxidants. Therefore, these pro-oxidants will react with
them, promoting their oxidation. This situation is beneficial, because it is
the antioxidants that end up getting oxidized, sparing our biomolecules from
oxidative damage. These non-enzymatic antioxidants often have in their
composition benzene rings which stabilize the presence of a possible unpaired
electron, and may also react with one another so that their unpaired electrons become
paired. </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVwxBzVYKdqa2rs735eveOZG_nAqni1FaeD_FsPZDYUzVVgndXMjMrff9U53gE8F8rPbCMRtQUFBzUQ7HwdBqkwBvDaaErNS8LPg-FwEHyakBwJxLi2AgWJK_jgvS0ZuX6N88ZTExDPmIb/s1600/Antioxidante_1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVwxBzVYKdqa2rs735eveOZG_nAqni1FaeD_FsPZDYUzVVgndXMjMrff9U53gE8F8rPbCMRtQUFBzUQ7HwdBqkwBvDaaErNS8LPg-FwEHyakBwJxLi2AgWJK_jgvS0ZuX6N88ZTExDPmIb/s1600/Antioxidante_1.png" /></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Within this class we have glutathione, for example, which is an
endogenous antioxidant very important for red blood cells (and for other cell
types...) and that reacts with peroxides undergoing oxidation. When it
undergoes oxidation, it dimerizes with another oxidized glutathione. We also
have some molecules that are exogenous antioxidants, namely vitamin C and
vitamin E, which are very important antioxidants for our plasma and for our
membranes, respectively. Note that there are many vitamins that do not have
antioxidant function, that is, this characteristic can not be generalized to
all other vitamins. There are also several antioxidants that are not
indispensable to our metabolism, but they contribute to its good functioning,
belonging to the class of bioactive compounds of the diet. Flavonoids or
lycopene from tomatoes are good examples of this.<br />
Therefore, if we look at the two classifications, it is easy to see that the
exogenous antioxidants are always non-enzymatic, and that the endogenous
antioxidants can be enzymatic or non-enzymatic. Regardless of the class where
they are inserted, they are extremely important molecules and if we can
guarantee an adequate contribution of them, surely we will be better prepared
to deal with oxidative stress.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioFVvC0mtFlM2cnxiUTy-wGrBgR6vHv1xiN-2lhJKF6u5PjhN6gZTFod_jqP1uPbMs4RGa9kjMLz7RF2xEZ-hTU-helkCEgtn4Pz6rtBlHQUvUWUxOaQVBjPvOVMUwPQ2M3vLZs45fYAK4/s1600/Antioxidante_3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="572" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioFVvC0mtFlM2cnxiUTy-wGrBgR6vHv1xiN-2lhJKF6u5PjhN6gZTFod_jqP1uPbMs4RGa9kjMLz7RF2xEZ-hTU-helkCEgtn4Pz6rtBlHQUvUWUxOaQVBjPvOVMUwPQ2M3vLZs45fYAK4/s640/Antioxidante_3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-67151497891463743062017-02-06T06:03:00.003+00:002017-02-06T06:03:46.135+00:00Metabolic map about the effects of nitric oxide (NO) on smooth muscle cells<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV_dT2CAVOvCTmZrwFIg9SwUVT59EPcw8xlgog0zqLE0_9XA3qtQASMZtGiuKjMLMJ27TXoT8qiqst8MxATU7gadFePUCYrFjQRQFViWli4MZRV3YdVCbmRSSvuQCNdOZaMHAGU2BUiJGH/s1600/NO+e+cora%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="528" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV_dT2CAVOvCTmZrwFIg9SwUVT59EPcw8xlgog0zqLE0_9XA3qtQASMZtGiuKjMLMJ27TXoT8qiqst8MxATU7gadFePUCYrFjQRQFViWli4MZRV3YdVCbmRSSvuQCNdOZaMHAGU2BUiJGH/s640/NO+e+cora%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.gif" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-68478241915357295922017-02-02T14:12:00.001+00:002017-02-02T14:12:13.504+00:00Glucagon<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNzbd7ytZNOkS9zvtJawDjVbtOzu469GISHLtAqgCf4o3YDs_73g9oiz4qXMlV1ICcvthtZ2189w4mz-kbAXVTv86kIHx53S52keQ6WC8JYIhVymUrFH3MT3ofvC5OLTexFrLRW4aeum5A/s1600/Glucagon.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNzbd7ytZNOkS9zvtJawDjVbtOzu469GISHLtAqgCf4o3YDs_73g9oiz4qXMlV1ICcvthtZ2189w4mz-kbAXVTv86kIHx53S52keQ6WC8JYIhVymUrFH3MT3ofvC5OLTexFrLRW4aeum5A/s320/Glucagon.png" width="320" /></a>Glucagon is derived from the Greek words <i>gluco</i> (glucose) and <i>agon</i> (agonist). It is a single-chain polypeptide with 29 amino acids, produced in the α-cells of the islets of Langerhans, located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. This protein is important in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Its function is to increase glycemia by acting as an insulin antagonist. In a hypoglycaemia, glucagon is released into the bloodstream and acts mainly in the liver, where it binds to specific receptors on hepatocytes (which store glycogen), stimulating them to produce and then release glucose. This mechanism is called glycogenolysis. After glycogen stores cease, the liver synthesizes glucose through gluconeogenesis.Thus, under normal conditions, glucose ingestion inhibits glucagon secretion. During fasting, there is a decrease in hepatic glycogen, a decrease in glycolysis in the liver, a stimulation of gluconeogenesis, a stimulation of fatty acid oxidation in adipocytes and increase of serum levels of this protein. An important function of glucagon is to maintain the concentration of glucose high enough for the normal functioning of neurons, preventing seizures or hyporglycemic coma in normal fasting situations, such as in nighttime sleep.<br />Glucagon secretion is controlled physiologically not only by the hypoglycemia, but also by low levels of fatty acids, hyperaminoacidemia, vagal stimulation and adrenal system stimuli, such as stress or physical exercise. Increased glucagon in the blood will activate lipase from fat cells, inhibit the storage of triglycerides in the liver, inhibit the reabsorption of sodium by the kidneys, increase cardiac output, increase the secretion of bile and inhibit the secretion of gastric acid.<br />In the cases of pathology, high levels of glucagon in the blood may be present related to glucagonoma, a rare neoplasm of the α-cells of the pancreas, causing increased glucose and lipid levels, decreased levels of amino acids, anemia, diarrhea and weight loss. It is also observed the appearance of migratory erythema, characterized by the presence of erythematous blisters in the lower abdomen, buttocks, perineum and groin. Diabetes mellitus often results from the imbalance between the hormones insulin and glucagon present in this neoplasm.<br />Glucagon can be used in dental emergencies as in severe hypoglycemia, common in an uncontrolled diabetic. It can be administered intramuscularly, causing the rapid increase of glucose levels in the<br />blood.</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<u>Text written by:</u></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>- Catarina Capelo</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>- Dina Nair</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>- Marta Santos</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>- Samyra Matni</b></i></div>
World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-90149746801594171762017-02-01T05:52:00.003+00:002017-02-01T05:52:24.465+00:00Cartoon about free radicals (2)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-3100732555565258372017-01-30T06:54:00.002+00:002017-01-30T06:54:31.504+00:00Oxidative stress (general considerations)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</span><span title="Hoje decidi fazer um post sobre um tema muito importante, o stress oxidativo.">Today
I decided to make a post on a very important topic, oxidative stress. </span><span title="Este assunto é muitas vezes referido nas aulas de bioquímica (e não só!) mas nem sempre fica claro para quem fala ou ouve falar, o que é que realmente representa.
">This
subject is often referred to in biochemistry classes (and not only!), but it is
not always clear to the speaker or to the audience, what it actually
represents.<br />
</span><span title="A ideia é simples de compreender… Conforme eu digo muitas vezes nas minhas aulas, nós temos um péssimo hábito, que nos mata aos poucos, sem exceção: passamos uma vida inteira a respirar oxigénio.">Nevertheless,
the idea is simple to understand ... As I say many times in my classes, we have
a bad habit, which kills us slowly, without exception: we spend our lives breathing
oxygen! </span><span title="E essa molécula, tão importante para a nossa bioquímica, em particular para o metabolismo aeróbico, é que nos vai matando aos poucos, e nos faz envelhecer.">And
this molecule, so important for our biochemistry, in particular for aerobic
metabolism, is what kills us slowly, and makes us grow old. </span><span title="E não tenham dúvidas, se não morrermos de acidente, ou de alguma doença, vamos morrer porque estivemos durante a nossa vida a respirar O2!">And
do not hesitate, if we do not die of an accident, or of some illness, we will
die because we have been breathing O2 during our life! </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="font-family: serif;">:)</span></span></span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><br />
</span><span title="Então o que é que o oxigénio tem assim de tão perigoso?">So,
what does oxygen contain that makes it so dangerous? </span><span title="Basicamente nada, ou seja, a molécula em si é inócua para as nossas moléculas/células.">Basically
nothing, that is, the molecule itself is harmless to our molecules/cells. </span><span title="O problema está na sua suscetibilidade para sofrer reduções parciais, ou seja, captar eletrões.">The
problem is in its susceptibility to suffer partial reductions, that is, to
capture electrons. </span><span title="Na realidade, nós estamos continuamente a formar as chamadas espécies reativas de oxigénio, que são essencialmente 3: o radical hidroxilo (radical livre), o anião superóxido (radical livre) e o peróxido de hidrogénio.">In
fact, we are continually forming the so-called reactive oxygen species, which
are essentially 3: the hydroxyl radical (free radical), the superoxide anion
(free radical) and hydrogen peroxide. </span><span title="Destas 3, as duas primeiras são mais agressivas, pois são radicais livres.">Of
these 3, the first two are more aggressive because they are free radicals. </span><span title="Os radicais livres são moléculas que apresentam um eletrão desemparelhado (por isso é que são representadas com um pontinho preto, que é o tal eletrão desemparelhado).">Free
radicals are molecules that have an unpaired electron (which is why they are
represented with a black speckle, which is that unpaired electron). </span><span title="Os eletrões têm um grave problema, não gostam de andar sozinhos, e por isso vão procurar “companhia” na primeira molécula que lhe aparecer à frente, seja um lípido, uma proteína ou um ácido nucleico."> </span></div>
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<span title="Os eletrões têm um grave problema, não gostam de andar sozinhos, e por isso vão procurar “companhia” na primeira molécula que lhe aparecer à frente, seja um lípido, uma proteína ou um ácido nucleico."></span></div>
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<span title="Os eletrões têm um grave problema, não gostam de andar sozinhos, e por isso vão procurar “companhia” na primeira molécula que lhe aparecer à frente, seja um lípido, uma proteína ou um ácido nucleico.">The
electrons have a serious problem, they do not like to walk alone, so they will
look for "companionship" in the first molecule that appears ahead, be
it a lipid, a protein or a nucleic acid. </span><span title="Ou seja, as espécies reativas de oxigénios são moléculas altamente reativas, são agentes oxidantes poderosos, que vão reagir com as nossas biomoléculas, retirando-lhes um eletrão e alterando-as/destruindo-as.">That
is, reactive oxygen species are highly reactive molecules, they are powerful
oxidizing agents, which will react with our biomolecules, removing an electron
and altering/destroying them. </span><span title="E o problema é que apesar do radical livre deixar de o ser quando capta um eletrão, a molécula com quem reage transforma-se num radical livre, dando origem a um processo destrutivo em cadeia.
">And
the problem is that although the free radical ceases to be when it picks up an
electron, the molecule with which it reacts becomes a free radical, giving rise
to a destructive chain process.<br />
</span><span title="Para contrariar esta situação, as nossas células têm várias defesas, os chamados antioxidantes.">To
counteract this, our cells have several defenses, called antioxidants. </span><span title="Portanto, o stress oxidativo surge quando nós temos um desequilíbrio entre os pró-oxidantes (espécies reativas de oxigénio e reações que as produzem) e os antioxidantes (processos que impedem a formação e/ou atuação dos pró-oxidantes), no sentido de favorecer">Therefore,
oxidative stress arises when we have an imbalance between the pro-oxidants
(reactive oxygen species and reactions that produce them) and the antioxidants
(processes that prevent the formation and/or action of the pro-oxidants),
favoring </span><span title="os primeiros, ou desfavorecer os segundos.">the
first, or disfavoring the seconds.</span></div>
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World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-84563040070046686632016-09-19T09:09:00.004+01:002016-09-19T09:09:27.739+01:00Cartoon about lipids and carbohydrates<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXv-AYC2cKGvMvZfQl2cckJaDewMVZ3EQnHrH_5LjxckpQTXBlkoT6zFxGE60Lbu0C__g5jSHojcUagTD88pXjrzEQXJpWtTPzigpVavHzsG3luHY-pAVHjmtoCgvQ7p1VyNWvr7MR_tM3/s1600/L%25C3%25ADpido+e+hidrato.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXv-AYC2cKGvMvZfQl2cckJaDewMVZ3EQnHrH_5LjxckpQTXBlkoT6zFxGE60Lbu0C__g5jSHojcUagTD88pXjrzEQXJpWtTPzigpVavHzsG3luHY-pAVHjmtoCgvQ7p1VyNWvr7MR_tM3/s640/L%25C3%25ADpido+e+hidrato.jpg" width="526" /></a></div>
<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-3119515212701815092016-09-15T06:18:00.001+01:002016-09-15T06:19:30.735+01:00Glycogenin<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPLoQCEIVG4H2_58Ur2wtuipmx_MQUv4bi7bQ7UIukH2tJaXEEgjghiqwbVkoilTrzNMexMfEqOYAGhiNKBkXnIKGLBNjlUbrR8VekZDpW4EAqu9coB0IgNXdvKhqEjxmvEfwQRAXDTn9B/s1600/Glicogenina.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPLoQCEIVG4H2_58Ur2wtuipmx_MQUv4bi7bQ7UIukH2tJaXEEgjghiqwbVkoilTrzNMexMfEqOYAGhiNKBkXnIKGLBNjlUbrR8VekZDpW4EAqu9coB0IgNXdvKhqEjxmvEfwQRAXDTn9B/s320/Glicogenina.jpg" width="320" /></a>The glycogenin is a protein whose main function is to be the initiator molecule of glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis), a process that allows the storage of glucose residues in the form of a polysaccharide. Glucose residues are added to glycogenin through α-1,4 bonds. The first step in the glycogen synthesis is indeed the synthesis of this protein. Each glycogen molecule is linked to a glycogenin by a glycosidic linkage which involves the first glucose residue of the chain and a tyrosine residue of glycogenin. The glycogenin designation stems from the fact that this protein is involved in the genesis of glycogen, by functioning as a primer in the formation of a new glycogen molecule.The glycogenin through its glucosyltransferase activity, binds covalently to itself a glucose molecule (from UDP-glucose - the active form of glucose). Then, the glycogenin forms a compact complex with glycogen synthase, the enzyme responsible for glycogen synthesis. After the addition of up to 7 more glucose residues (from UDP-glucose) mediated again by the activity of glucosyltransferase of glycogenin. Finally, glycogen synthase and branching enzyme enter in action, being glycogenin covalently linked to the unique reducing end of the glycogen molecule.<br />
In humans there are two isoforms of glycogenin which can be expressed as glycogenin-1, having a molecular weight of 37 kD, and encoded by the GYG gene that is expressed mainly in muscle, or as glycogenin-2 having a molecular weight of 66 kDae encoded by GYG2 gene which is expressed mainly in the liver, cardiac muscle and other types of tissues except skeletal muscle<br />
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<i><b>Disability glycogenin-1 (GYG1) - Mutation of the gene GYG1</b></i><br />
A glycogenin-1 deficiency was detected in its gene, GYG1, which revealed a nonsense mutation in one allele and a missense mutation in another allele. A missense mutation results from inactivation of the autoglycosilation of glycogenin-1, which is required for the initiation of glycogen synthesis in muscle. The glycogenin-1 autoglycosilation occurs at Tyr195 by the action of glucose-1-O-tyrosine. A missense mutation of this residue results in inactivation of the autoglycosilation. However, it was also demonstrated that missense mutations affecting other residues of glycogenin 1-cause problems on autoglycosilation.<br />
Phenotypic characteristics of skeletal muscle in a patient with this disorder are muscle glycogen depletion, mitochondrial proliferation and marked predominance of slow twitch amd oxidized muscle fibers. Mutations in glycogenin-1 gene GYG1 are also causes of cardiomyopathy and arrhythmia.</div>
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World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-20723143373832954662016-09-12T06:25:00.003+01:002016-09-12T06:25:40.825+01:00Video about reducing sugars<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-36386341833546212892016-09-08T05:52:00.004+01:002016-09-08T05:52:54.979+01:00Metabolic map about NO signalling pathway<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-28379291095720647562016-09-06T06:34:00.001+01:002016-09-06T06:53:09.110+01:00Enolase<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmCivNspcQApejaXInrhTeexq9GchVxOjcJtcXUyrCbrNx9nW4PmTjvZjIiB3wgwIOL6gCR70siBSwxZNVV374MqKnUh8EAqU8-FoDxlQ7DCk5C28GkJw4Bk42B6Zav52QY8ORBN33ExeS/s1600/Enolase.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmCivNspcQApejaXInrhTeexq9GchVxOjcJtcXUyrCbrNx9nW4PmTjvZjIiB3wgwIOL6gCR70siBSwxZNVV374MqKnUh8EAqU8-FoDxlQ7DCk5C28GkJw4Bk42B6Zav52QY8ORBN33ExeS/s1600/Enolase.png" /></a>Enolase is an enzyme, more particularly, an active metalloenzyme. This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, the hydro-lyases, breaking the carbon-oxygen bonds, and is present in all tissues and organisms involved in glycolysis or fermentation. The optimal pH of this enzyme is 6.5 in humans.Its main function is to intervene in the 9th step of glycolysis (the penultimate step in this metabolic pathway), a step in which occurs the dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG) in phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a product that will be used in the next and final step for the production of energy (ATP).<br />
Enolase has three different isoforms: the ENO1 or alpha-enolase (in muscle tissue); ENO2 or gamma-enolase or neuro specific enolase (in neurons); ENO3 or beta-enolase (in skeletal muscle cells). Enolase has a molecular weight of about 100000 Daltons (depending on the isoform). In humans, the α-enolase has two antiparallel subunits, which have two domains that establish hydrophobic interactions. The subunits interact via salt bridges, involving arginine and glutamate.<br />
The specific enolase to neurons is released in a wide variety of diseases, such as multiple sclerosis or stroke, or myocardial infarction.<br />
In several medical experiments, it was employed enolase concentrations in samples in an attempt to diagnose certain conditions and its severity. Several studies demonstrated that different levels of enolase may also be associated with tumor growth or with the occurrence of myocardial infarction or stroke, so it was inferred that the levels of enolase serve as an indicative of the prognostic evaluation of victims of cardiac arrest.<br />
Enolase inhibitors have been utilized in health care for the treatment and prevention various diseases, such as anti-trypanosome drugs and more recently as anticancer agents. Enolase can be inhibited by fluoride ion (F-). The fluoride forms a complex with magnesium and phosphate, which binds to the active center of the enzyme rather than the substrate 2-PG, preventing the conversion of 2-PG into PEP, decreasing the production of PEP and, consequently, ATP.<br />
Intake of fluoride-containing water inhibits the catalytic activity of enolase of bacteria present in oral cavity (highly dependent on glycolysis due to the anaerobic environment), interrupting glycolysis and, thus, bacterial fermentation (decreased acid production), preventing the formation of dental caries.</div>
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<u>Text written by:</u><br />
<i><b>Inês Carvalho</b></i><br />
<i><b>Junjie Lin</b></i><br />
<i><b>Maria Alves</b></i><br />
<i><b>Susana Pinto</b></i><br />
.World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-40906190042355601172016-09-01T07:36:00.001+01:002016-09-01T07:36:13.007+01:00Cartoon - carbohydrates<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-8655470689362879572016-08-30T07:15:00.003+01:002016-08-30T07:15:49.859+01:00Video about carbohydrates biochemistry<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />World of Biochemistryhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13836710404470269151noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2260095727656419932.post-2274230348493333462016-08-28T16:04:00.001+01:002016-08-28T16:05:31.504+01:00Carbohydrates (main functions)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">
Carbohydrates play a variety of functions in nature. Because of this, they are
indispensable elements for living beings. The main functions of carbohydrates
are:</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJSyyqi5Hu7hZB3cdwfTb15FgjluQ_XTJmJW2P2bB0LTHejlrRe3b2uKhW69fZvhnF5moxwllaWW2AA2Q1Q0SaDLlbYkKkQK4_hpdH75PrsB89JgnY0AKQX8lj21YG-q0zE8oV_jHiQ5NK/s1600/Glicolise.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="151" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJSyyqi5Hu7hZB3cdwfTb15FgjluQ_XTJmJW2P2bB0LTHejlrRe3b2uKhW69fZvhnF5moxwllaWW2AA2Q1Q0SaDLlbYkKkQK4_hpdH75PrsB89JgnY0AKQX8lj21YG-q0zE8oV_jHiQ5NK/s320/Glicolise.jpg" width="320" /></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Metabolic fuel </b>– various
monosaccharides may be used as a source of chemical energy through its
catabolism. Logically, the main carbohydrate used as metabolic fuel is glucose.
However, there are several other monosaccharides that can also be used as
metabolic fuel (<a href="http://worldofbiochemistry.blogspot.pt/2011/07/utilization-of-different.html4" target="_blank">more information on this subject here</a><span style="background: yellow; mso-highlight: yellow;"></span>),
such as fructose, mannose or galactose;</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJgFW5iGEOcbItBNqj-U6-PVsFSfJyDDmxy6L4iRi47U1iGhS971OLnco6oGXViEIt1gIEt_r8Kdupih_JwP2IBP45tfnXx2lnFOwxRj5jQXaUqPamh0TDhavZduca0bQxchw0TL5856rR/s1600/Nucle%25C3%25B3tido.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJgFW5iGEOcbItBNqj-U6-PVsFSfJyDDmxy6L4iRi47U1iGhS971OLnco6oGXViEIt1gIEt_r8Kdupih_JwP2IBP45tfnXx2lnFOwxRj5jQXaUqPamh0TDhavZduca0bQxchw0TL5856rR/s320/Nucle%25C3%25B3tido.jpg" width="320" /></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Nucleotide components</b>– this
function is performed by two different pentose, ribose and deoxyribose. Actually,
only one of these carbohydrates is a “pure” monosaccharide (ribose), the other
is a derivative of monosaccharide (deoxyribose). Soon, I will write a post about
this... Both ribose and deoxyribose are pentoses, that means, they are monosaccharides
with 5 carbons. Ribose enters in the composition of ribonucleotides (and
consequently RNA) while deoxyribose takes part of the composition of
deoxyribonucleotides (and hence the DNA);</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaKCLJczGLFZsot9iGdxU3l0P2GwjFfBdFxWMNU0Dvz_WbVTxdi2TMHXPOjd_8esuYLzt5lZT8G2QTBKZwZ0uqNLRaGPnaq1jdDcv1jTXTzzIHnd2GqrM-0QiJVGmQvzW0dYr_OeE9fpI9/s1600/Glicogenio.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="292" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaKCLJczGLFZsot9iGdxU3l0P2GwjFfBdFxWMNU0Dvz_WbVTxdi2TMHXPOjd_8esuYLzt5lZT8G2QTBKZwZ0uqNLRaGPnaq1jdDcv1jTXTzzIHnd2GqrM-0QiJVGmQvzW0dYr_OeE9fpI9/s320/Glicogenio.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Metabolic fuel reserve</b> - some
polysaccharides play the function of metabolic fuel reserve. In this context,
there are two molecules that deserve a highlight: starch and glycogen. Both are
composed of a single type of monosaccharide, glucose. Starch is the reserve polysaccharide
of glucose in plant cells, while glycogen is the reserve polysaccharide in
animal cells;</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><br /> </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjND1AAko02KwGOGBqBmhnIhsT0J5hRNacs8RhprLRFkETm9eGUhTEMHtx4Wqh58-i3pSB8A1Pj_IysYI_z5a0MzhMQ7kl6BVwc5-X8dk3YTys7b1jde5qHwZe7wuaktGc0UshAj3vnL27o/s1600/Celulose.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjND1AAko02KwGOGBqBmhnIhsT0J5hRNacs8RhprLRFkETm9eGUhTEMHtx4Wqh58-i3pSB8A1Pj_IysYI_z5a0MzhMQ7kl6BVwc5-X8dk3YTys7b1jde5qHwZe7wuaktGc0UshAj3vnL27o/s320/Celulose.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjND1AAko02KwGOGBqBmhnIhsT0J5hRNacs8RhprLRFkETm9eGUhTEMHtx4Wqh58-i3pSB8A1Pj_IysYI_z5a0MzhMQ7kl6BVwc5-X8dk3YTys7b1jde5qHwZe7wuaktGc0UshAj3vnL27o/s1600/Celulose.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a></div>
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Structural function</b> - some
polysaccharides play structural functions, including cellulose and
peptidoglycan. The first is the main component of cell walls of plant cells,
while the latter is the main component of the cell wall of prokaryotes;</span><br />
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><br /> </span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRNM-jODgabYrLBJUKMkFJUTsvxh86Ja37pNHQMB67uH89CoeywriyqNTmBieM2oQ6bUhvJPvKEmmGwpCtnh3C8W8EW1wtaf5aXaezx-TTUE2r1AucwWgO0KoaVjjt8bOnfIXSOoshS5jF/s1600/Quitina.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="228" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRNM-jODgabYrLBJUKMkFJUTsvxh86Ja37pNHQMB67uH89CoeywriyqNTmBieM2oQ6bUhvJPvKEmmGwpCtnh3C8W8EW1wtaf5aXaezx-TTUE2r1AucwWgO0KoaVjjt8bOnfIXSOoshS5jF/s320/Quitina.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"> - <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Protection</b> - some polysaccharides
play a protective function, such as chitin, which is the main component of the
exoskeleton of insects;</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjscwagVMCfsRfcnp3irJyn5GMCauvPYifYji0w_GecWCcYXWkw6oP7Iv_O9Q7phrHEZPyh4tzIOiuCCY3ciwKUYMbhEi1XbpfGxhwPpYuS5oRsnx5_mqPr_OkHrRmpqFNny8SncgDHpKRc/s1600/%25C3%2581cido+hialur%25C3%25B3nico.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjscwagVMCfsRfcnp3irJyn5GMCauvPYifYji0w_GecWCcYXWkw6oP7Iv_O9Q7phrHEZPyh4tzIOiuCCY3ciwKUYMbhEi1XbpfGxhwPpYuS5oRsnx5_mqPr_OkHrRmpqFNny8SncgDHpKRc/s320/%25C3%2581cido+hialur%25C3%25B3nico.gif" width="320" /></a><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Lubrication and hydration</b> - due to
their rich composition in hydrophilic functional groups, carbohydrates have the
ability to interact with a large number of water molecules. Because of this
feature, various polysaccharides form viscous and highly hydrated mixtures.
These polysaccharides are referred to as glycosaminoglycans and are essential
for the skin, joints, etc.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Recognition and cell adhesion</b> -
there are several molecules involved in cell adhesion and recognition. These
molecules are found on the cell surface and<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a> have carbohydrate
components, being called glycoproteins or glycolipids.</span></div>
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